Here follows a paper outlining one of the areas to be presented in the WAC5 session with this title. We hope that all participants in the session (or related sessions) can read papers posted here in advance of the Congress, so there will be more time for fruitful discussion of new ideas among participants. The following paper is Copyright © 2002 Yuri Berezkin. All Rights Reserved. More such papers are to come. For the WAC5 web site please click here.

     
     Among more than 1000 folklore motifs selected from 25,000 Siberian, Eskimo and Amerindian texts, a dozen are of particular interest for research on prehistoric connections between Eurasia and North America.
     This group includes motifs recorded in Southern Siberia and further to the West and South, sometimes as far as India, the Mediterranean and Eastern Europe. They are absent in Northern and Northeastern Siberia and rare in Western Siberia. All of them reappear again in North America to the east of the Rockies, in particular across the Plains and the Great Lake region. The Southern Siberian texts we refer to are recorded among both Mongolian (especially Baikal Buriat) and Turkish-speaking people. Being unknown to the Tungus, Paleoasiatic and Eskimo groups, these motifs could hardly have been brought to America during some recent contacts across Bering Strait. Some of them are quite peculiar and their independent emergence in Eurasia and North America does not seem plausible. They are typically included as parts of heroic tales and in some cases two or three motifs of this series are found in one and the same tale. We must of course consider the possibility of their independent emergence, or typological or ecological reasons for such a parallelism in development of the folklore. The predominantly open landscape with developped alternation of warm and cold seasons could hardly be taken for such a reason. Absence of these motifs in Australia and extreme rarity in South America emphasize the historical significance of Eurasian – North American links.
     There are at least twelve motifs in this series, and of course others may still be discovered. In many cases these motifs are found in the same texts in variable combinations which is an argument in favor of them being brought to the New World together as a specific folklore tradition. In Asia, they have been incorporated into fairytales which are easily borrowed. Nevertheless, such an "entropy" has not obliterated completely the differences in their occurrence in separate areas.

     Weather birds. A man comes to a nest of a giant birds. When the birds come, they bring with them clouds, rain, hail, etc. Usually the nestlings tell the hero about this beforehand. In North America and in one Altai version the male and the female birds bring different kinds of weather (e.g. the rain and the snowfall). American cases: Upper Tanana (McKennan 1959: 179-180), Kutchin (McKennan 1965: 102; Schmitter 1910: 21-23), Tagish (Norman 1990: 111-113), Kaska (Teit 1917a, no.1: 435-441), Koyukon (Jetté 1908-1909: 498; Wright 1908: 33-34), Tanana (Chapman 1914, no.30, 101-102), Hare (Petitot 1886, no.13: 141-144), Slavey (Petitot 1886, no.5: 321-327), Beaver (Goddard 1916: 233-234), Yellowknife (Petitot 1886, no.3: 352-361), Chipewyan (Goddard 1912, no.1: 46-49; Lowie 1912: 189-193), Tlingit (Swanton 1909, no.31: 97), Kutenai (Linderman 1997, no.9: 90-107), Gros Ventres (Cooper 1975, no.11: 482-487; Kroeber 1907b, no.20: 82-89), Arapaho (Dorsey, Kroeber 1903, no.139-142: 341-387), Crow (Lowie 1918: 144-148), Wichita (Dorsey 1904a, no.16: 122-123), Navajo (Matthews 1994: 116-121), Western Apache (Goddard 1918: 7-19; 1919: 132-135), Chiricahua (Opler 1942: 3-9, 12), Jicarilla (Mooney 1898a: 200-209; Russel 1898: 255-258), Lipan (Opler 1940, no.1: 19-21), Hopi (Stephens 1929, no.7: 17-18).
     This is the only motif whose predominant distribution is among Athabaskans. For all the others, the Subarctic is outside of the core area of their spread in America. The Altai version that is the closest to American type is Chelkan (Kandarakova 1988: 44-72). In other Eurasian distribution there is no detail concerning male and female birds bringing different kinds of weather. Such are versions recorded across the Caucasus, Turkestan, and among southern Altai groups. In both Altai and North American tales the Weather birds motif is found in similar contexts, i.e. the story of difficult tasks suggested to a man by his bride's family, his father-in-law or his rivals.

     Snake threatens nestlings. A serpent or aquatic monster regularly attacks the nestlings of powerful bird. The bird is helpless against it but a man kills it. The thankful bird helps him. American cases: Assiniboin (Lowie 1909a, no.25b: 181-182, 182-183), Crow (Lowie 1918: 144-148), Hidatsa (Beckwith 1938, no.7: 92-94), Arikara (Parks 1996, no.15: 209-215). Eurasian distribuition: practically everywhere from Eastern Mediterranean till Southern Siberia; Mansi in Western Siberia.

     Escape from Polyphemo's cave (K603). A person enters the dwelling of the master of animals or of a monstrous shepherd. The host plans to kill him. The person escapes by sticking to the belly of one of the animals which is going out. In Eurasia, the host is the cyclope, in North America he is the owner of the buffaloes. American cases: Kutenai (Boas 1918, no.65: 213-219, 303-304), Blackfoot (Spence 1985: 208-212; Wissler, Duvall 1908, no.1: 50-52), Gros Ventre (Kroeber 1907b, no.4: 65-67), Crow (Lowie 1918: 216-218; Simms 1903, no.14: 295-297), Kiowa (Parsons 1929, no.9: 21-26), Kiowa-Apache (McAllister 1949, no.9: 52-53), Lipan (Opler 1940, no.11: 122-125), Chiricahua (Opler 1942, no.4: 15-18). Eurasian distribuition: from Eastern Mediterranean to Southern Siberia.

     Recognition of wife or son (H161, H324). A man has to pick out his transformed wife or child from identical companions. American cases: Thompson (Teit 1917b, no.36: 56-62), Plains Ojibwa (Skinner 1919, no.4: 293-295), Blackfoot (Josselin de Jong 1914: 52-59), Crow (Lowie 1918: 110-115; Simms 1903, no. 12: 289-290), Mandan (Bowers 1950: 276-281), Santee (McLaughlin 1990: 170-178), Oglala (Walker 1917: 183-190; 1983: 109-118), Omaha and Ponca (Dorsey 1888b: 74; 1890: 55-57, 172-175, 604-609), Osage (Dorsey 1904c, no. 23: 27-30), Arapaho (Dorsey, Kroeber 1903, no. 144-146: 388-418), Cheyenne (Kroeber 1900, no.25: 186-187), Arikara (Parks 1996, no. 9: 162-165), Skiri Pawnee (Dorsey 1904b, no. 79: 284-393), Wichita (Dorsey 1904a, no. 29: 199-206). Eurasian distribuition: from Europe and Eastern Mediterranean to India, Indonesia and Japan.

     Drowned woman remains alive. A young woman's own mother, mother-in-law, co-wife or other rival throws her into the water and takes her place. The woman is not dead under the water, answers a call, comes out to nurse her baby. Husband finds her and takes her back. American cases: Ojibwa - Chippewa (Jones 1919, no. 66, 67: 609-623, 623-653; Spence 1985: 176-180), Fox (Jones 1907, no. 8: 101-111), Assiniboin (Dorsey 1904c, no. 22: 26-27), Osage (Dorsey 1904c, no. 22: 26-27), Arapaho (Dorsey, Kroeber 1903, no. 5: 8-12), Wichita (Dorsey 1904a, no. 17: 124-127), Biloxi (Dorsey, Swanton 1912, no. 26: 79-81). Eurasian distribuition: from Eastern Europe to Iran and southern Central Asia (possibly wider). This is the only motif in the series for which I do not know Southern Siberian parallels.

     Lodge-boy and Thrown-away (Z210.1). One of two small boys lives in a lodge with his father or mother. Another has been thrown away, grows up by himself, comes to play with his brother. Tries to free himself being caught, then agrees to live in the house. In Western Siberia Lodge-boy appears in the guise of a puppy. American cases: Menomini (Skinner, Satterlee 1915, no.II8: 337-342), Ojibwa - Chippewa (Radin 1914, no.45: 81-83; Schoolcraft 1999: 183-190), Northern Cree (Bell 1897: 2-8), Sauk and Fox (Lasley 1902: 176-178), Kickapoo (Jones 1915, no.9: 67-75, 135-138), Seneca (Curtin, Hewitt 1918, no.34: 176-180), Micmac (Parsons 1925, no.1: 56-59; Speck 1915b: 61-62), Blackfoot (Josselin de Jong 1914: 20-29; Wissler, Duvall 1908: 40-53), Gros Ventres (Cooper 1975, no.10: 462-482), Crow (Lowie 1918: 74-85), Hidatsa (Beckwith 1938: 30-43), Omaha and Ponca (Dorsey 1888b: 76-77; 1990: 215-219), Iowa (Skinner 1925, no.1: 427-441), Arapaho (Dorsey, Kroeber 1903, no.139-142: 341-387), Skiri Pawnee (Dorsey 1904b, no.25: 88-94), Kiowa-Apache (McAllister 1949, no.6: 30-44; Wichita (Dorsey 1904a, no.12: 88-102), Caddo (Dorsey 1905, no.17: 31-36), Natchez (Swanton 1929, no.5: 222-223), Creek (Swanton 1929, no.2: 4-5), Seminole (Greenlee 1945: 142-143), Alabama and Koasati (Martin 1977: 69-71), Northern Shoshoni (Lowie 1909b, no.24: 280-283),Lipan (Opler 1940, no.2a: 22-25), Isleta (Parsons 1932c, no.14: 392-402). Eurasian distribuition: Baikal Buryat (many versions), Mansi, Sel'kup. More distant parallels as far as the Mediterranean.

     Mosquito and Thunder (for Eurasian versions, A2236.I). A dangerous person asks bloodsucking insect where has it taken his meal, whose blood it was, or whose blood tastes better. Insect lies or is unable to answer. In most of American and in some Buriat versions the person is Thunder, and the myth explains why now lightning strikes trees, not people. In Eurasian versions Swallow usually bites off the tongue of the insect making him unable to speak. North American cases: Tanaina (Tenenbaum 1984: 73-75), Tahltan (Teit 1919-1921, no.22: 243), Shuswap (Teit 1909a, no.35: 709), Thompson (Teit 1898, no.11: 56), Lillooet (Teit 1912b, no.12: 311-312), Kalapuya (Jacobs 1945, no.12: 132), Sandy Lake Cree (Ray, Stevens 1971: 92), Chippewa (Barnouw 1977, no.42: 158), Micmac (Parsons 1925, no.17: 84-85), Wintu (Dubois, Demetracopoulou 1931, no.70: 393), Maidu (Dixon 1912: 161 in Dubois, Demetracopoulou 1931: 400). South American cases: Yaruro (Wilbert and Simoneau 1990c, no.52: 82), Harákmbet (Calífano 1995, no.18: 186). Less precise parallel among Mataco (Metraux 1935b: 141). Eurasian distribuition: Caucasus, Volga region, Turkestan, Southern Siberia.

     Potiphar's wife (K2111, T418). Woman makes vain overtures to young man and/or falsely accuses him of sexual abuse. Her husband believes that the young man is guilty, kills or tries to kill him. American cases: Beaver (Ridington 1988: 126-136), Tsimshian (Boas 1916, no. 30: 781-782), Haida (Boas 1916: 783), Western Sahaptin (Farrand, Mayer 1917, no. 9: 157-159), Nez Percé (Phinney 1934: 163-165), different groups of Cree (Bloomfield 1930, no. 28: 268-279; Petitot 1886, no. 1: 451-459; Ray, Stevens 1971: 112-120), Ojibwa (Radin 1914, no. 14-15: 27-31), unspecified group of Algonkians (Spence 1985: 184-187), Kickapoo (Jones 1915, no. 10: 75-89), Naskapi (Speck 1915b, no. 1: 70-74), Montanais (Desbarats 1969: 6-12), Seneca (Curtin, Hewitt 1918, no. 114: 543-555), Blackfoot (Clark 1966: 254-259), Assiniboin (Lowie 1909a, no. 7a: 150-154), Hidatsa (Beckwith 1938: 81-91), Santee (Riggs 1893: 139-143; Wallis 1923, no. 17: 78-83), Oglala (Wissler 1907, no. 7: 196-199), Tunica (Haas 1950, no. 4: 31-57; Swanton 1911: 321-322), Biloxi (Dorsey, Swanton 1912, no. 28: 99-107). Eurasian distribuition: from Mediterranean and Northern Europe to India and (Western?) China.

     Ursa major as seven men. Every star of Ursa mayor is a separate person. Usually the constellation represents seven men. American cases: Coos (Jacobs 1940, no.4: 241), Winnebago (Smith 1997: 28-30), Sarsi (Simms 1904: 181-182), Blackfoot (Fraser 1990: 55; Josselin de Jong 1914: 43-37; Knox 1923: 401-403; Spence 1985: 205-208), Assiniboin (Lowie 1909a, no.21: 177), Gros Ventres (Kroeber 1907b, no. 27: 105-108), Crow (Lowie 1918: 126, 211), Cheyenne (Grinnell 1926: 220-231 in Gibbon 1964: 237), Arapaho (Dorsey, Kroeber 1903, no. 80, 105: 152-153, 208-209), Kiowa (Brown 1930: 7-8 in Gibbon 1964: 237; Parsons 1929, no. 3: 9-11), Comanche (Saint Clair 1909b, no.18: 282), Wichita (Dorsey 1904a, no.10: 74-80). Eurasian distribuition: from Crimea and Caucasus to Mongolia; also India.

     The youngest Son-in-law. Two (in America) or three (in Eurasia) daughters of a chief/king choose their bridegrooms and marry. The husband of the youngest sister is poor, sick, dirty, old, too young, etc. but she feels that he has supernatural power. He is a succesful hunter and/or warrior while the other sons-in-law fail to fulfill the tasks assigned to them. Eventually he reveals his real nature. American cases include Tsimshian (Boas 1902: 137-168), Sahaptin (Farrand & Mayer 1917, no.9, 11: 157-164, 171), Nez Perce (Phinney 1934: 166-170), Kutenai (Boas 1918, no.64: 191-213), Menomini (Bloomfield 1928, no.108: 469-483; Skinner and Satterlee 1915, no.II5: 317-327, Ojibwa (Jones 1916, no.38: 384; Radin and Reagan 1928, no.20: 109-113, 117-119), Plains Cree (Bloomfield 1930, no.18: 130-142), Seneca (Curtin and Hewitt 1918, no.20, 22: 127-135, 139-144), Blackfoot (Josselin de Jong 1914: 38-52; Wissler and Duvall 1908, no.II1: 40-53, Teton (Beckwith 1930, no.4: 379-391; Walker 1917: 192-193), Santee (McLaughlin 1990: 156-169; Riggs 1893: 101-104; Wallis 1923, no.16, 19: 75-78, 85-88, 90-92), Omaha and Ponca (Dorsey 1888b: 74; 1890: 55-57), Iowa (Skinner 1925, no.23: 482-484), Pawnee (Dorsey 1904b, no.45, 60: 178-185, 239-245), Arapaho (Dorsey and Kroeber 1903, no.139-142: 341-387; Voth 1912, no.1: 43), Cheyenne (Kroeber 1900, no.14: 170-172), Kiowa (Parsons 1929, no.26: 47-56), Northern Shoshoni (Lowie 1909b, no.23h: 274-275). The motif is more specific than Thompson's (2000: 329) "The loathy bridegroom" (D733) motif which refers also to texts (e.g. Kadiak) where the protagonist is not compared with rivals.

     The hero puts on a mask as a doctor and kills an enemy previously wounded by him (K824, K1955). A somewhat similar motif "Trickster puts on a mask as a doctor to kill and eat his victim" has a very different areal distribution and should not be merged with the "Hero" stories considered here. In America, the "Hero" motif is recorded among the North Alaskan Inupiaq (Keithahn 1958: 52-61; Spencer 1959: 388-390), Menomini (Skinner, Satterlee 1915, no.7: 260-263), Ojibwa - Chippewa (Barnouw 1977: 34-38; Carson 1917: 491-492; Radin 1914, no.10: 22-23; Radin and Reagan 1928, no.2-5: 62-76; Speck 1915d, no.1: 34-36), Sandy Lake Cree (Ray, Stevens 1971: 20-26), Saulteaux (Skinner 1911: 173-175), Sauk and Fox (Jones 1901: 226-235), Plains Cree (Ahenakew 1929: 320-327; Bloomfield 1930, no.1: 16-20; Skinner 1916, no.1: 341-346), Assiniboin (Lowie 1909a, no.5, 14: 146-147, 165-166), Omaha and Ponca (Dorsey 1890: 238-253), and Iowa (Skinner 1925, no.10: 468-472). One isolated South American case is among the Chayahuita of the Peruvian Montaña (García Tomas 1994, 3: 290-299). Midwestern and Eurasian versions (Georgian and possibly others in the Caucasus – and Middle Eastern, Buryat and Mongol, possibly Altai) are especially similar: the wounded enemy escapes into the underworld and the hero follows him there.

    Companions with different virtues. Every one of a group of companions is endowed with a particular gift (strength, swiftnesss, good sight, etc.). This is one of the most widespread fairytale motifs from Europe to Southern Siberia. All American cases are recorded in the Plains area, particularly among the Teton (Walker 1917: 219-220), Kiowa (Parsons 1929, no.3: 9-11), and Wichita (Dorsey 1904a, no.9: 69-74). The versions in Eurasian which are geographically nearest to America occur among the Altai and Mongol -- these have cosmological connotations: the protagonists turn into the seven stars of the Big Dipper. The Kiowa and Wichita myths end in the same way.

     Conclusions. All of these motifs are rare along the Pacific Rim both in Asia and in America and probably penetrated into the inner parts of North America via central Alaska. The Eurasian and the American territories of their spread are separated by four large cultural-historical regions (Yakut-Tungus, Paleoasiatic, Eskimo and to some extent Athabaskan Subarctic). This suggests that the cultural links in question are early. However, being extremely rare in South America, these motifs could scarcely have been brought into the New Workd during its initial peopling. The data of physical anthropologists on the Americanoid substratum in Southern Siberian populations across the Altai and Tuva (Kozintsev, Gromov and Moiseyev 1999; Moiseyev 2001) correlate well with the evidence presented from folklore. It should alsobe emphasized that American parallels to Eurasian fairytales cannot be due to any Colonial influence. They are extreemly rare precisely in those regions of the New World that had been subject to early Russian, Spanish, French, or English penetration, i.e. in Alaska, in Atlantic areas of Canada and the United States and in the Southwest.

Email to the Author Dr. Yuri Berezkin, Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russia